Divine Rationale: The Role of Religion in War and Conflict

Religion has played a complex and multifaceted role in shaping human history, influencing cultures, politics, and conflicts. While many conflicts throughout the ages have been attributed to religious motivations, the true catalysts are often more intricate, involving power struggles, political agendas, and societal control. Examining these historical and modern examples reveals how religious beliefs, misinterpretations of sacred texts, and the pursuit of power under the guise of faith have led to profound consequences. Additionally, understanding how prophecy and religious fervor impact the actions of believers provides insight into both historical and contemporary dynamics.

The Crusades (1095–1291) were initiated by Pope Urban II’s call to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim control, becoming emblematic of religion-driven warfare. These campaigns resulted in an estimated 1–2 million lives lost. While the stated cause was religious, underlying motivations included political gain, territorial expansion, and control over trade routes. The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648), triggered by Protestant-Catholic tensions within the Holy Roman Empire, saw approximately 8 million deaths, exacerbated by famine and disease. Although religion provided the pretext, the war evolved into a broader conflict involving dynastic and political rivalries. The French Wars of Religion (1562–1598), primarily fought between Catholics and Huguenots, claimed hundreds of thousands of lives and demonstrated how religious fervor could be manipulated for political ambitions.

Islamic conquests from the 7th to the 13th centuries involved early Islamic expansions under caliphs, combining religious zeal with empire-building, resulting in millions of deaths over centuries. These conquests were framed as a duty (jihad), aligning with desires for economic and territorial gain. The Reconquista (8th–15th centuries) featured campaigns by Christian states to reclaim Iberian territories from Muslim rule, leading to hundreds of thousands of casualties and the eventual expulsion of Muslims and Jews from Spain. The Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) in China, led by Hong Xiuquan who claimed to be the brother of Jesus Christ, resulted in 20–30 million deaths and is one of the deadliest conflicts in human history. The Sikh Wars (1845–1849) between the British East India Company and the Sikh Empire, driven by religious and political tension, claimed tens of thousands of lives and highlighted the complexity of political conquest intertwined with religious identity. The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990), fueled by religious and ethnic tensions among Christians, Muslims, and Druze, resulted in an estimated 120,000 deaths, illustrating how religion could serve as a primary marker of identity that deepened social and political grievances.

In the modern era, the Partition of India in 1947, marked by a religious divide between Hindus and Muslims, led to an estimated 1–2 million deaths and displaced 10–15 million people. This violent event demonstrated how religious identity, when politicized, could lead to catastrophic human suffering. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict, rooted in historical claims with deep religious significance for both Jews and Muslims, has resulted in tens of thousands of casualties and ongoing displacement. Beliefs in divine entitlement to land continue to fuel the conflict. The Yugoslav Wars (1991–1999), while primarily ethnic, were exacerbated by religious divisions among Orthodox Christian Serbs, Catholic Croats, and Muslim Bosniaks, leading to over 130,000 deaths and widespread atrocities. The Syrian Civil War (2011–present) began as part of the Arab Spring but became steeped in sectarian divisions involving Sunni Muslims, Alawites, and Christians, resulting in over 500,000 deaths and millions displaced.

Modern conflicts often demonstrate how religious and sectarian divides can be leveraged to fuel ongoing violence and deepen societal fractures. While some of these conflicts may start with political or social catalysts, religious identity can quickly become a powerful tool for mobilization and justification. The manipulation of religious beliefs to serve political ends is not limited to distant historical events; it continues to play a significant role in contemporary global affairs, shaping both domestic and foreign policies.

The comparison between certain segments of Western Evangelicals and religious extremist groups like the Taliban reveals commonalities in belief in prophecy and end times. Many adhere to dispensationalist theology, believing that the return of Christ is contingent on specific prophetic events involving Israel. This belief has had real-world implications, as some American political policies are shaped by these religious convictions. For example, unwavering support for Israeli territorial expansion is often justified through biblical prophecy rather than purely strategic interests. Similarly, the Taliban and other extremist groups hold apocalyptic visions that motivate their actions, such as the belief in the arrival of a messianic era (Mahdi). This belief has fueled campaigns of violence and repression, aiming to establish a theocratic state that aligns with their interpretation of religious prophecy. Both groups also share a tendency toward literal interpretations of religious texts. Certain segments of Western Evangelicals often approach the Bible through a lens that supports political and social agendas, such as opposing abortion or LGBTQ+ rights, based on strict scriptural readings, even though the texts themselves contain limited direct references to these issues. These beliefs influence legislative efforts and broader cultural movements. The Taliban, in contrast, enforce an austere interpretation of Sharia law derived from the Quran and Hadiths, imposing strict regulations on dress codes, education, and gender roles under the threat of severe punishment. The parallels in their pursuit of social and cultural control highlight how religious doctrine can be wielded as a powerful tool to shape society and override the broader will of the majority.

The “us vs. them” mentality is another shared trait. Some US Evangelical rhetoric frames America as a uniquely Christian nation under threat from secularism and non-Christian influences, promoting an identity of moral and spiritual superiority. This narrative has led to significant social divides and resistance to pluralism. The Taliban similarly view themselves as defenders of Islam against Western ideologies, positioning their cause as a righteous battle against what they see as cultural and moral corruption. A parallel can be drawn between some of these historical and modern religious movements and today’s followers of the MAGA movement. Like religious zealots of the past, segments of Trump’s base often frame their political and cultural beliefs within a quasi-religious narrative. This includes viewing Trump as a divinely chosen leader or protector of traditional Christian values against perceived threats from secularism and multiculturalism. Such misconceptions are dangerous as they blur the line between political and religious ideology, making it easier to justify extreme actions. This can heighten the risk of the U.S. becoming entangled in a religious war, particularly in the Middle East, under the guise of protecting or advancing religiously aligned interests.

Religious texts have long been misinterpreted, sometimes intentionally, to justify war and conquest. The Bible and Quran contain allegories and teachings often taken out of context. For instance, “An eye for an eye” (Exodus 21:24) from the Bible is frequently misused to justify retribution, although it originally advocated proportional justice, not vengeance. This misuse was evident during the Crusades when the phrase “Deus Vult” (“God wills it”) was weaponized to mobilize masses, despite broader biblical teachings emphasizing peace and forgiveness. The Quran’s concept of “Jihad”, historically understood as a personal and spiritual struggle, has been distorted by extremists into a justification for holy war. This interpretation has fueled modern terrorism and sectarian violence, perpetuating cycles of conflict worldwide. More recently, religious rhetoric has been co-opted and woven into Western politics to influence public opinion and policy. Religion’s reliance on faith and interpretation makes it particularly vulnerable to distortion, allowing those with ulterior motives to manipulate beliefs and spread misinformation for their own ends, without the need for factual support.

The source of these religious texts is rooted in ancient times when literacy was limited, and most knowledge was shared orally or recorded by a select few who could write. These early authors often relied on dreams, visions, and oral traditions to compile sacred scriptures. The Bible, for example, was written over centuries by various authors who interpreted divine inspiration through their cultural and historical lenses, blending stories, prophecies, and moral codes. These texts were also influenced by the socio-political contexts of their time, reflecting not only religious beliefs but also the power structures and norms of ancient societies. The Quran, believed to be revealed to Prophet Muhammad over 23 years, was initially transmitted orally before being compiled into a written form under the Caliph Uthman. The intelligence and literacy of populations during these periods often led to mystical interpretations of natural phenomena, attributing divine significance to events like eclipses, plagues, and natural disasters that today might be explained through science.

Over centuries, religious texts have been edited, translated, and altered to align with the needs of those in power. For instance, the translation of the Bible into Latin by St. Jerome (the Vulgate) became the only authorized version in Western Christianity for centuries, allowing the Church to maintain interpretative control. This centralized power enabled religious authorities to suppress dissent and legitimize political actions, such as the Inquisition and crusades, under a divine mandate. The Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, led by figures like Martin Luther, directly challenged this control by advocating for translations of the Bible into vernacular languages. This democratization of religious knowledge empowered ordinary people but also sparked conflicts and wars, such as the Peasants’ War in Germany, as interpretations of scripture diverged.

Islamic texts have seen variations in interpretation that shifted with political and social tides. Caliphs and rulers employed religious scholars (ulama) to issue fatwas that aligned with their aims, sometimes under coercion or as a means to consolidate power. For instance, during the Abbasid Caliphate, theological interpretations were used to bolster the legitimacy of the ruling elite and to suppress movements considered heretical. These adaptations highlight how texts have not only been misinterpreted but purposefully manipulated to suit the ambitions of those seeking power, fostering divisions within the Muslim world and contributing to sectarian strife.

Similarly, The King James Version (KJV) of the Bible, completed in 1611 under King James I, has been claimed to reflect translation choices that reinforced the authority of the monarchy and the Church of England. While scholars debate the extent of intentional bias, it’s evident that the translation served to support established religious and political structures of its time.

A subset of religious believers, particularly in apocalyptic sects, act on their interpretation of prophecies, believing they can hasten the “End of Days.” Christian Zionist groups, for example, support Israeli expansion due to their belief in biblical prophecy that the return of Christ depends on specific events involving Israel. This belief has had tangible political consequences, influencing U.S. foreign policy and contributing to tensions in the Middle East. Similarly, Islamic extremist factions such as ISIS have acted on beliefs that their actions can usher in the arrival of the Mahdi, perpetuating violence and attempts to establish a caliphate as part of their perceived divine mission. This perspective can foster a dangerous mindset where the potential for mass devastation is not only accepted but actively pursued, with some extremists taking deliberate actions to provoke or accelerate such conflicts as part of what they perceive as a larger, divinely orchestrated plan. For instance, certain religious extremists view nuclear war as a catalyst for fulfilling apocalyptic prophecies found in their sacred texts. This belief is rooted in the idea that a cataclysmic event, such as a nuclear conflict, could trigger the end times and usher in the prophesied return of a messianic figure or divine judgment. For these individuals, the destruction and chaos of such a war are seen not as a tragedy, but as a necessary step toward the realization of divine plans.

While religion has undeniably catalyzed many wars, it is often used as a veneer for deeper geopolitical, economic, or social motives. In ancient and medieval wars, religion often served as both a unifying and rallying force to consolidate power, expand territories, or subdue populations under a moral guise. The Crusades and Islamic conquests were as much about economic and territorial ambitions as they were about religious fervor. By comparison, modern conflicts are often driven by a blend of political, economic, and strategic interests, but religious motivations still play a significant role. For example, while the Syrian Civil War initially stemmed from political dissent and socio-economic disparities, it quickly evolved into a proxy war with sectarian undertones. Sunni and Shia divisions have been leveraged by various factions and external powers to justify their involvement, echoing the historical use of religious identity as a rallying cry.

Extremist groups like ISIS have taken the model of medieval religious wars and adapted it to the present day, using advanced propaganda techniques and exploiting religious narratives to recruit followers and justify violence. Their pursuit of a caliphate mimics past attempts at religious empire-building, demonstrating that while the scale and technology have evolved, the core motivations remain rooted in power acquisition and ideological dominance.

Future conflicts may increasingly feature the use of religious and ideological rhetoric, amplified by digital platforms. Social media allows rapid dissemination of beliefs and mobilization of like-minded individuals across the globe, leading to localized or even globalized conflicts spurred by religious zeal. The potential for cyber warfare and misinformation campaigns, combined with apocalyptic or prophetic narratives, could bring about new kinds of warfare that mirror past motivations but with far-reaching consequences and modern weaponry. Understanding these historical parallels helps highlight how religious motivations, often intertwined with deeper power plays, have persisted across eras. This enduring belief can escalate conflicts to unprecedented scales, driving humanity toward catastrophic outcomes where the pursuit of divine justification could culminate in total annihilation.